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An anemometer, a device for measuring wind speed, is an example of an impulsetype device with a vertical axis of rotation— though vertical axis wind turbines VAWTs may employ aerodynamic or impulse design. Conventional horizontal axis wind turbines HAWTs used widely at utility scale are an example of aerodynamic turbines with 1. Turbine efficiency by type. This chart describes the efficiency of different types of utility-scale wind turbines. The horizontal axis represents the relationship between wind speed and turbine tip speed.
Aerodynamic turbine types have tip speeds of four to seven times the wind speed, and impulse turbines have tip speeds on the order of the wind speed. Aerodynamic turbines are favored because they have roughly twice the efficiency of impulse-type turbines, but impulse turbines have historically been used whenever cost, reliability, or capacity factor is more important than efficiency.
Source: Jean Lucmenet Betz max. Time versus wind energy. This chart, showing the distribution of wind speeds with lometers or miles per hour.
Total hours that the wind blew at a particul ar speed are shown as a bar chart. To To water pumps that used cloth-covered, woodshow the energy that is contributed at each of the wind speeds, the power in the wind a cubed en-framed blades as well as the iconic Wild function of its velocity is multiplied by the time that the wind blew at that speed. E H Efficiency factors can be misleading, 70 though, in that they presume a certain wind speed, which is usually not noted.
HAWTs are based on its megawatt rating. To maximize the capacity factors for specifications. The energy in wind is a cubed ity factors. Capacity factors are based on a power function of its velocity, so optimizing wind curve for the particular wind turbine as well as wind energy, the focus of the offshore wind industry should change from the megawatt turbine efficiencies for high wind speed rewind speed data from the proposed site where sults in large megawatt ratings.
This works the turbine will be installed. In the current paradigm, HAWTs have the highest efficiencies in the higher wind speed ranges, and this results in high megawatt ratings for the turbines but low capacity factors, meaning that the turbine will generate its rated capacity only a small fraction of the time. For this reason, wind turbine electricity must be associated with storage in order to be considered as a baseload power source. In comparison, VAWTs VAWTs in an impulse configuration have a relatively high efficiency in lower wind speeds because they have higher blade areas as a percentage of swept area.
Supervisor Visit bit. Ocean Energy Storage Much has been invested in trying to develop energy storage technologies as a way to more evenly distribute renewable power across time. If the electrical generation occurs over deep ocean water, though, energy storage becomes much more convenient. In another significant advantage for floating wind turbine technology, the pressure of the deep ocean waters under the turbines can be used for utility-scale energy storage. A number of different engineering approaches to this have been explored using air or water.
Coloradobased Bright Energy Storage, for instance, has a plan to pump air into huge bags in deep water, while Dr. Alexander Slocum, a mechanical engineering professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, suggests using excess wind power to pump water from hollow concrete spheres made from fly ash that are ballasted by their own weight to the seafloor.
Doubling as an anchor for floating wind turbines, a 25meter-diameter sphere could store up to 10 MWh of power, depending on depth. Pairing deepwater wind generation with energy storage could make wind energy the most flexible of all energy sources. A 1-MW wind turbine that is able to produce 10 MWh over 24 hours could sell all 10 MWh during the hottest hour of the next day at peak prices.
Wind farm operators could even begin bidding in the frequency regulation market, where the price per kilowatt-hour is five to 10 times the price that can be negotiated in power purchase agreements. This would both improve returns for investors and provide an environmental bonus because turbines that now provide frequency regulation, being smaller and more flexible, have fewer pollution controls.
It is good for everyone when clean flexible power is worth more. Addressing Transmission Concerns But to accomplish frequency regulation from the deep ocean, transmission capabilities are obviously required.
Several developments have been made here, too. Trans-Elect DevelDevelopment Co. However, a number of capital costs, efficiency losses, cooling systems, power quality problems, and maintenance headaches must be borne with this method. Wind turbines designed to generate DC current may still need a transformer to step up the voltage but would avoid even having to sync with the rest of the grid, making them simpler to implement by reducing the balance of plant—which is especially important at sea.
Though technically challenging, obtaining permits for undersea cables may be easier than for land-based lines. Also, transmission cables could be brought ashore to existing grid connections at retired power plants, many of which are located on riverbanks or at coastlines near major load centers.
These could serve as perfect locations for injection of high-current frequency regulation and reactive power services to keep the grid running efficiently. Inspired design. One example of a equipment needs are all that would be refloating vertical axis wind turbine VAWT is quired, so a supply chain based on these com- a design based on the rigid mainsail used on ponents would scale up much more quickly.
The ton VAWT design Old shipbuilding sites and cargo transfer ports adds three more sail plans and a masthead could make for good candidates for wind tur- ring for 1, square meters of projected bine manufacturing sites.
The labor skill sets area. The bearings and generator are located could also be filled quickly and practically near sea level for easy on-site service and to provide a stable low center of gravity. Cour- deployed in many more coastal locations. This is important because, having never installed a foundation-based offshore wind turbine, the U. And, unlike in Europe, the U. Lightweight costs to assemble and service turbines at sea structures can be achieved by using tension can also be dramatically improved.
As noted and compression design principles rather previously, previously, the further away from NIMBY than the bending of a cantilevered structure. Ocean transporta- offshore would not be visible or audible from tion and sighting combined with low turbine land, dramatically reducing legal challenges speed could enable scalability to a huge size.
Additionally, the VAWT has no Floating VAWTs Fit the Bill inertia based on current onshore designs, their gearbox or oil reservoir, and all the compoOnly one offshore turbine is operational in the supply chains, and government funding pro- nents on the turbine are waterproof and rustU. The UK has more than one-half Habib Dagher, this year launched the first and reefed or sunk by remote control, allowing of the 3 GW total worldwide installed offshore only offshore wind turbine off the coast of them to ride out the storm safely beneath the wind generation, and it has ambitious plans Maine—a concrete-composite floating plat- ocean surface.
When the storm has passed for even more offshore wind farms. They are cantile- ment, the reliability of the energy stream, and to foreign contractors or turbine suppliers. Jim vered structures, reaching high off their base the ability to usefully site the turbine. Because d ifferent supLanard, president of the U.
Offshore Wind support with large masses and forces acting at VAWTs would have a completely different Development Coalition, is quick to point out the top. And, support for the offshore wind industry, it will are the mainstay of the wind energy industry. First, the capital-intensive sup- which is mounted on top of a pole.
There is no fair winds in which to hoist its sails. Steel fabrications and fiber- picture, picture, smart smart grid, grid, objective objective look should should con- American Society of Precision Engineering. The industry is looking for alternatives to the long-held wisdom about the economic benefits that come from scaling up atomic technology. Now, big money is actively pursuing smaller reactor designs that bite off considerably less than the machines that came into service in the s and s.
Modern, state-ofthe-art nuclear units basically start at 1, MW and move upward from there. But is that doctrine always valid?
Maybe not, according the latest economic analyses that support the concept of SMRs. It may be the case that the hefty capital costs of new, big nuclear plants, the long lead times to build them, and the fact that each plant is unique and entirely built on site, may overwhelm the economics of getting bigger. Smaller may be better for new nuclear power units. There are other potential benefits.
At a presentation at the Bipartisan Policy Center in Washington last year, Pete Lyons, the Department of Energy DOE assistant energy secretary for nuclear energy and a nonpartisan veteran of the nuclear policy wars in Washington, outlined the economic benefits the agency sees that could flow from smaller, more flexible, factory-built reactors. These benefits, Lyons said, include: www.
The agency is moving ahead to commit that money. It must be matched, dollar-for-dollar, dollar-for-dollar, by the privatesector recipient. If industry chooses to widely deploy these technologies in the U. The TVA wants to locate two of the MW mPower units at its Clinch River site, where the agency and the federal government planned, spent billions, and never succeeded in building a fast breeder reactor in the s and s.
Breeders were then going to be the next big thing in nuclear power technology. Having disappointed the nuclear industry by picking only one winner in the first round of its competition for SMR cost sharing, the DOE last March announced round two, with applications due in July, for projects aimed at a time frame. The company is based in Corvalis, Ore. The design is a pressurized water reactor that the developers claim can shut down in an emergency without need for off-site power.
The sunk costs of everyone involved would have run well into six figures, without counting all of the engineer costs of the plant itself I plan the move of them, not design them. Edward I suppose most of us old ol d timers had such an experience. Change is almost constant in the marketplace and the regulatory environment. Given that major power projects take many years for permitting and construction; and with economics a moving target, you almost never start up and serve the load as planned.
This situation i s certainly a management challenge. John Yes I worked on a Waste-to-Energy facility in i n NJ—the new Governor cancelled the facility even though the foundations had been poured—when politics over-ride sound engineering and financial considerations the public suffers.
GA, which designed and marketed the Triga research reactor, the most successful nuclear machine in the world, is proposing a version of its high-temperature gas reactor for the DOE program. The GA project proposes a MW helium-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor that is surely a challenge to conventional light-water designs.
Industry experts expect the DOE to pick a second-round winner soon. Multiple SMRs may actually present a higher risk than a single large reactor, especially if plant owners try to cut costs by reducing support staff or safety equipment per reactor. The thrust of U. The first U. It went into service in December Consolidated Edison, which owned and operated the Indian Point reactor, in the early s proposed a 1,MW plant in Queens, in the heart of New York City at its existing Ravenswood Ravenswood oil-fired station.
But the presumed economies of scale soon propelled reactor vendors and utility buyers into larger and large units, until 1-GW machines became the norm. They had poor operating records, with too many unplanned outages, poor capacity factors, and multitudes of regulatory infractions.
In the s, not long after the March Three Mile Island meltdown in Pennsylvania, a top nonpolitical official at the NRC suggested that perhaps it was a mistake to rapidly scale up reactors beyond about MW. At the time, those musings struck the nuclear industry as unexpected treachery. Today, on the other hand, the industry is embracing the idea of smaller units with greater safety margins, fewer engineered safety features, often with underground siting, and with economic benefits from smaller scale.
Will this latest approach to resurrect the U. That question remains unanswered. Renewable Energy F. Alternate Fuels I. Box , Tucson, AZ p Work is underway at an adjacent location on a 1,MW supercritical coal-fired unit—also using Alstom technology—that is slated to enter service in March Asia as a whole obtains around two-thirds of its electricity from coal-fired power plants, he said.
The conference will take place in Bangkok, Thailand. The boilers are two-pass, drum-type boilers with seven elevations of tangential firing coal burners and four elevations of distillate oil burners.
Since the station entered service, operators have burned 43 different brands of bituminous and subbituminous coal. That represents a total burn of around Azizul Othman, operations manager, said the plant meets World Bank standards for emissions. It achieves those standards by using flue gas desulfurization and electrostatic precipitators.
The plant does no on-site coal blending. Emission standards. Azizul Othman, operations manager at the 2,MW coalfired Stesen Janakuasa Sultan Azlan Shah power plant in Malaysia, said the plant achieves World Bank emission standards by using flue gas desulfurization and electrostatic precipitators. A second challenge involves preparing contingency plans should the unit trip offline.
The metertall two-pass boiler will be equipped with a pulverizer and dynamic classifier. Fabric filters will be installed to handle particulate control instead of electrostatic precipitators. As required by the project lender, TNB has also hired a technical service advisor to assist with power plant operations for its first two years of service.
Mercury emissions also were a topic of discussion during the two-day conference. The Minamata Convention on Mercury, named after a Japanese city where industrial emissions of mercury caused a poisoning disease that affected thousands of people, was signed by multiple nations in early October.
It aims to prevent health damage and environmental pollution. The convention was adopted at an international conference organized by the United Nations UN Environment Program and drew delegates from nations.
The pact will take effect 90 days after it is ratified by at least 50 nations and maps out measures to curb health and environmental damage caused by mercury. She said Asia is a primary focus for mercury reductions given the amount of coal burned for power production across the region. She said that although the United States was among the first to initiate mercury controls, Canada was the first to adopt emission limits in Ontario complied in part by closing all of its coal-fired power plants, she said.
The standard was set based on emissions from the top 12 performing coal-fired plants, and compliance may be achieved through approaches that include both wet and dry flue gas desulfurization, dry sorbent injection, selective catalytic reduction SCR , activated carbon injection, and baghouse and fabric filters. Sloss said that many U. Relatively simple steps such as fuel switching, operating adjustments, and coal washing may be effective mitigation tools.
He said that because coal originates from fossilized swamps, wide variability in coal quality should be expected, even from a single seam in a mine. This means that broad variations in coal quality may exist but remain unidentified. As one example, he said that coal volatility refers to the amount of smoke a particular coal produces, a gauge first identified in the mids by naval commanders and used as a means to measure how visible their warships might be under full steam.
Doug Hart, firing systems manager at Alstom Power, extended the discussion about December POWER coal to note that low-rank coals tend to burn easier, but they also may spontaneously combust on the coal pile. He said subbituminous coal produces lower NO X and SO2 emissions, but at the expense of a lower heat value and higher moisture content.
Hatt said that lower NOX can detune a boiler and increase the amount of slagging. Combustion efficiency also may be affected, he said. Hart pointed to a variety of systems that may need to be modified or upgraded by a power plant that burns subbituminous coal. Those systems include mills, high-velocity coal piping, burners, the furnace, air heaters, and induction fans. Visit www. The line of new instruments, Prime, Pro, and Premium, is designed to match the technical functionality and price of eddy current instruments from the most basic to the most sophisticated.
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Reality: Energy demand will continue to increase and double by Myth 2: Peak oil. Reality: There is no shortage in sight for fossil fuel resources. Myth 3: Demand growth will be fully met by new clean energy sources.
Reality: According to our scenarios, scenarios, the contribution of fossil fuels to global energy demand is still growing in absolute terms. Reality: Even in the best case we will see a near doubling of GHG emissions compared to levels. Myth 5: Current business models and markets are delivering. Myth 6: Current programs will deliver universal access to energy within the next 10 to 15 years.
Myth 7: On a global scale capital is cheap and abundant. Reality: Capital is extremely sensitive to perceived political and regulatory risks. Moreover, due to the growing pressures on public finances in most countries, public funds will not be available to augment private energy financing. Action is needed now. Energy leaders agree on many of the actions necessary, but significantly, they are not aligned on the nature, value, and importance of political and institutional risks and their critical impact on investment.
We are looking in the wrong place. The focus of current thinking about the energy system is biased and inadequate. The lessons of the past half-century should be that political gimmicksthe proverbial rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanicdo increase costs, but they advance nei- ther energy reliability nor independence. CleanPowerSF may enable some San Franciscans to feel better, but it will not create mean- ingful green jobs, will not advance development of renewable power, and will not promote real energy independence.
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Among the positive at- tributes of the location are its high elevation 7, feet above sea level which means there is less atmosphere for the rays to pass through and, hence, greater insolationand the presence of an existing kV transmis- sion line for interconnection.
The Alamosa Solar Project consists of dual-axis, pedestal-mounted trackers sup- porting modules that produce approximately 60 kW each, providing enough power for about 6, Colorado homes. The project is projected to generate ap- proximately 76, MWh per year, which displaces approximately million cubic feet of natural gas that would have been used by a comparable conventional natural gas fired power plant.
This eliminates the genera- tion of approximately 43, tons per year of carbon dioxide CO 2 emissions, based on the U. In addition, the CPV facility has very minimal water needs. Facility Overview J.
Jef Freeman, Jr. Another functional benefit of this design is that the CPV system makes efficient use of the available land, Freeman said. One MW of rated capacity is installed on 7 acres, compared to the approximately 8 to 10 acres typically needed for other solar technologies. The CPV technology is also easier to permit and install, with no special grading, water use, or other site treatment, minimizing the impact on the local natural environment.
The CPV solar trackers are Amonix models, each featuring the companys pro- prietary module assembly mounted on a sup- port column, Each tracker assembly is 70 feet wide by 50 feet high and contains 7, Fresnel lenses that concentrate sunlight ap- proximately times onto multi-junction solar cells manufactured by Boeing-Spec- trolab.
A hydraulic system supplied by Hawe Hydraulics North America rotates and tilts the assembly throughout the day so the sur- face of each panel maintains an optimal angle with the sun.
Each tracker has its own invert- er manufactured by Solectria Renewables that converts DC power output from the solar cells to AC power. As an added bonus, the as- semblys modular design will easily accom- modate future cell technology updates.
As the largest solar plant of its type in the world, the MW Alamosa Solar Project is currently enjoying its place in the sun. The innovative project consists of concentrating photovoltaic CPV solar trackers, each featuring a CPV so- lar cell panel assembly mounted on a support column. The modular design of the assembly allows the project to easily accommodate future improvements in cell technology. Approximately 16, cubic feet of con- crete, requiring more than 1, batch trucks, was used for site construction.
The facility has more than 28 miles of grounding cable throughout the site and more than 52 miles of underground elec- tric cable for transferring power from the field to the transmission grid. The advanced Ethernet network on site connects more than 2, unique devices, utilizing over 20 miles of fiber optic cable and network switches. Currently, the Alamosa Solar Project has a site staff of five; an additional lens-cleaning staff of typically four workers is under con- tract and employed when needed.
Dealing with Project Obstacles The biggest challenge was the project scale itself, Freeman said. Each tracker assem- bly contains 7, Fresnel lenses and multi- junction solar cells. For the total project, this equates to approximately 3.
An additional hurdle for the project was the physical location. The high desert plateau required the engineering designers to account for extreme temperature variations from 45F to over 95F , a frost line of 42 inches below the site grade, a relatively high water table, and the presence of invasive rodents.
Freeman said that overcoming these challenges required that the selection of materials and equipment met the functional needs of the project while also tolerating extreme conditions. The project also had to take into account strong seasonal winds that scour the San Luis Valley floor, Freeman said. Winds have histori- cally blown from the San Juan Mountains to the west, across the valley floor, and up against the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to the east.
The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Reserve is along the eastern range and largely results from the valley sediment being deposited there. To protect the equipment from wind damage, each tracker assembly has its own anemometer to measure wind speed to en- able the assemblies to be moved into a flat, face-up, stowed position when winds are over 28 mph, Freeman explained.
Addition- ally, a centralized control system provides backup wind speed measurements from three meteorological stations on site and will put the entire field into stow position when wind speeds exceed 30 mph. The project encountered some challeng- es related to obtaining state and Alamosa County variances and permits.
For example, to obtain the necessary water rights for po- table and lens-cleaning water, the project team had to work closely with county con- servancy officials to develop a program of water augmentation for the San Luis Valley groundwater system. Another challenge was due to the fact that the projects solar tracker assemblies have a maximum height of over 50 feet, which ex- ceeds county height limitations, Freeman said.
Once again the project team worked with the county, through the state-delegated Permit process, to successfully secure all needed per- mits for construction, inclusive of a height vari- ance to enable the project to move forward. Securing Financial Backing The Alamosa project will be vital to the eventual commercialization of CPV technol- ogy by representing the first utility-scale im- plementation, Freeman said. The first hurdle for the project team was to find financing.
Because the project is the first of its kind, conventional financing was not available. Traditional financial institutions required at least two years of operating performance data in order to adequately gauge the risk profile of the project before they would offer financ- ing terms for review. The project team ultimately secured a low- interest loan from the Federal Finance Bank under the U. Department of Energys Loan Guarantee Program. In order to meet commer- cial operation deadlines, the project went into construction well in advance of securing the loan, which required significant upfront equity from the project developer until it was refund- ed from loan proceeds once financing finally closed.
Construction was completed in approx- imately 12 months, and the facility successfully achieved commercial operation in April. A Model for Future Solar Energy Projects The ultimate success of the Alamosa Solar Project may have a significant impact on the financing of similar projects in the future. In order for the conventional commercial lend- ing community to get comfortable with risks associated with innovative projects, an operat- ing track record is needed.
Freeman added that the Alamosa Solar project is well on its way to establishing such an operating track record. By their very nature, pioneering projects such as the Alamosa Solar Project often encounter equipment supply, construction, and operational obstacles. Each occurred at some point during construction and startup of the Alamosa project. It was imperative to have quality ownership, engineering, construction, and operational personnel in- volved to ensure the projects ultimate suc- cess, Freeman explained.
The combination of engineering talent at Cogentrix with the complementary talent at Stantec and Mortenson enabled the Alamosa Solar Project to address all challenges and become what is now the largest facility of its type in the world, Freeman said. As a result, it is the ideal role model for similar projects going forward. Preparing for sunny days. The Alamosa Solar Project consists of concentrating photovoltaic solar trackers. A solar panel support column is shown with the drive assembly be- ing positioned at the top.
Each tracker has its own inverter that converts DC power output from the solar cells into AC power. Courtesy: Daniel OConnor Photography www.
Since March, the new system has provided electricity, steam, and chilled water to the adjacent Coca-Cola Syrup Plant, satisfying most of the plants energy requirements and reducing its long-term energy costs. Using a trigenera- tion or CCHP combined cooling, heat, and power system, the new facility is projected to generate at least 48 million kWh of on- site renewable energy annually. The project also provides Coca-Cola the offtaker or energy user with the additional economic benefit of leveling its energy costs over an extended period of time.
The plant also was designed and installed with the ability to blend natural gas or use it as a backup fuel when landfill gas is inter- rupted to ensure relatively constant fuel input to the plant. The new facility is gaining attention. For example, the U. Operational Overview The system achieved commercial operation on March 31, , after approximately 15 months of construction and related activi- ties. This is the first trigen plant built at the offtakers site.
A significant challenge during the construction phase was coordinating all the construction activities so as not to inter- fere with or interrupt the offtakers existing operations. Coordination of tie-ins to existing site utilities and the controls modifications required to integrate new systems into the existing schemes had to be done with careful attention to detail, Byars said.
The trigeneration plant has three GE Jen- bacher J reciprocating engine generators, each rated at 2, kW for a gross output of 6, kW. The engines use selective catalytic reduction urea and selective noncatalytic reduction control technologies to mitigate the plants total emissions and thereby keep them below major source thresholds. Fuel gas con- ditioning equipment used at the landfill site was provided by Venture Engineering for removal of siloxane a chemical potentially harmful to the engines and post-combustion emissions control devices , as were polishing skids.
Unison Solutions provided the com- pression and dehydration equipment. The HRSGs have bypass dampers that enable full electrical output to be achieved even when the offtakers ther- mal requirements are relatively low.
The steam can also be used to offset steam production from the offtakers facility boilers via a to psig reducing station. The condensed steam condensate produced from each point of use is sent to the facilitys existing feedwater deaerator before being re- turned to the HRSGs.
Byars explained that the project is unique because it involves landfill treatment and combustion at two different sites intercon- nected via a dedicated 6-mile pipeline. He said that this project configuration added significant complexity to the scheme required to automate, monitor, and control the sys- tem.
Approximately 2, scfm of landfill gas is first processed at the landfill via dehy- dration, compression, and siloxane removal equipment Figure 1. Then it is transported to the offtakers facility via the pipeline oper- ated and maintained by AGL Resources.
The trigeneration plants generators oper- ate in parallel with the Georgia Power dis- tribution grid. And because the project has obtained Qualifying Facility status, the offtaker is able sell any excess electricity generated by the trigeneration plant and not consumed by the offtakers facility back to Georgia Power at avoided cost or better.
As a result, Georgia Power gets the benefit of in- cluding some incremental renewable genera- tion in their system fleet, Byars said. Preparing Landfill Gas for Fuel Use In order to protect the integrity of the post- combustion environmental controls installed at the offtakers site, it was necessary to de- sign and install landfill gas conditioning and cleaning systems at the landfill. Prior to de- velopment of this project, all of the gas pro- duced at the landfill approximately 2, scfm was combusted via an open flare.
Now it is delivered from the landfills collection system to the treatment system at the land- fill. The landfills existing flare has remained in service and is available for use when op- eration of the trigeneration plant is upset or curtailed. After it is collected in the landfill col- lection system, the landfill gas is cooled in a heat exchanger to prevent condensation in the oil system.
The gas is then compressed to approximately 50 psig and cooled in a gas- to-air heat exchanger. It then flows through a glycol chiller and is cooled to 40F. Next, it passes through a moisture knock-out pot and reenters a regenerative heat exchanger, where it is reheated to 80F. At this point, the landfill gas passes to a siloxane removal skid. Only one train operates at any given time while the other side is either in regeneration or standby mode. An auxiliary flare was permitted and installed to accommodate the siloxane removal skid regeneration process.
The siloxane removal skid is generally in regeneration mode for six hours each day, during which it regenerates the off-line bed. Byars explained that during regeneration, a blower and electric heater mix approxi- mately 1, scfm of heated ambient air with a slipstream of approximately scfm of landfill gas, which flows in reverse through the regenerating bed before being routed to the auxiliary flare. After being in the siloxane removal bed, the gas then flows through a carbon polisher that further removes trace levels of siloxane.
The siloxane removal skids outlet connects to the inlet of the dedicated landfill gas pipe- line, which transports the gas to the trigen- eration plant site at the Coca-Cola facility. Lining up Project Funding Mas Energy used a combination of debt and equity to fund construction of the proj- ect. One related challenge was the sourcing of debt for a relatively small project such as this.
Ultimately, project financing was pro- vided via a bond issuance through the Fulton County Development Authority, Byars said. During the planning phase, Mas Energy which develops, owns, and operates energy systems around the worldspent several weeks analyzing its air permitting options for the trigeneration plant. From one perspective, the permitting process could have taken sev- eral months given that the new plant would be a major source of air emissions and the greater Atlanta region is a severe non-attain- ment area for ozone.
From another perspec- tive, the project stood to benefit substantially from the U. Treasurys Section grant program as more fully described in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of , provided that it achieved commercial operation prior to the end of a deadline since extended by an act of Congress. To expedite the permitting process and give the project the best chance of achieving commercial operation prior to the deadline, Mas Energy elected to install post-combus- tion treatment at the plant and permit the project as a synthetic minor source.
By working collaboratively with regulators, we were able to shorten what could have been a several months process to one that took ap- proximately days from the date of the air permit application by Mas Energy to the date of air permit issuance by the Georgia Envi- ronmental Protection Division, Byars said. The big squeeze. The gas-conditioning skid dehumidifies and compresses the landfill gas prior to removal of siloxanes. Courtesy: Mas Energy Because Experience Matters Since Bechtels founding in weve measured success against our ability to repeatedly exceed customers expectations and deliver innovative solutions for unique challenges.
With over 65 years of experience in the power industry, we are continuing to help customers provide power for the 21st century. We have an unrivaled standard for performance in the industry, having developed a diversied portfolio across six continents.
When it comes to power projects, no one offers greater teamwork, experience, service, and dependability than Bechtel. The new Charanka park is larger than the MW Golmud Solar Park in China, which previously had been clas- sified as Asias largest solar energy facility. In April, several Gujarat Solar Park fa- cilities that were already operational and had a combined total of MW received certificates of completion. In June, the proj- ects solar parks reached a combined total of The entire group of solar parks is predicted to avoid 8 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions and save , tons of natural gas annually, according to the Guja- rat government.
Indias Electric Power Sector With a population of approximately 1. Indias electric power sector had an installed capacity of Captive power plants those used for in-house power generation, typically by industrial entities generate an additional India generated TWh of electric- ity during the fiscal year.
The worlds fourth-largest energy con- sumer after the U. In December , more than million Indian citizens had no access to electricity. Of those who did have access to electricity, the supply was often intermittent and unreli- ablesometimes subject to blackouts such as the massive grid collapses that occurred in July. Fortunately, Gujarat, which actu- ally enjoys an electricity surplus, was re- inforced by the Western Grid and escaped those summer blackouts. The rapid growth of emerging economies like India therefore require significant power demand increases.
According to our analysis, in India, electric- ity demand is projected to more than triple to over 3, TWh by This would im- ply that over GW of new capacity will have to be built. The technologies and fuel sources that India adopts as it adds this ad- ditional capacity may significantly impact global resource usage and have potentially negative environmental effects, according to the IEA. Coal use in the power sector will almost triple over the forecast period.
Nuclear power generation will grow al- most fold. The most impressive increase will take place with renewable energy sources as their contribution increases fold over the projection period. Achieving such growth rates will not be easy, according to the IEA. Indeed, while coal will remain Indias generation back- bone during the whole period, coals ability to keep pace with such enormous power de- mand increases is uncertain. This is largely due to logistical challenges and constraints on domestic coal production and the rising price of imported coal.
Diversifying into gas and other alternatives is therefore not mere- ly a matter of protecting the environment but also of promoting energy security. For comparison, the average Phoenix, Ariz. Located in Indias western part, Gujarat is one of the most industrial- ized Indian states.
It has annual power gen- eration capacity of more than 14, MW with 2, MW of surplus power, according to government sources. Its not surprising that Gujarat, with its plentiful solar resourc- es, is heavily promoting solar park develop- ment Figure 1.
As part of the national solar energy ini- tiative, the Gujarat government launched its Solar Power Policy in The solar parks are being placed in sparsely populated flat areas in the north- ern part of the state. The projects range in size from 1 MW to 40 MW. For example, the Charanka So- lar Park consists of a group of 17 thin-film photovoltaic PV power systems located on a 4,acre site in Patan, a Gujarat dis- trict. A total of 17 national and international companies contributed power systems to the grid-connected park.
When fully built out by the end of , the park will host MW of solar power systems. The governmental development of solar parks has at least two main advantages: It streamlines the project development timeline by letting government agencies undertake land acquisition and neces- sary permits. It provides dedicated common infrastruc- ture for setting up solar power generation plants funded by individual companies. This approach has promoted the accelerated installation of private-sector solar power gen- eration capacity and thereby cut many costs that would be faced by stand-alone projects.
Common solar park infrastructure includes site preparation and leveling, water availabil- ity, access roads, and security services. In parallel with the central governments initiative, the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission announced a feed-in tariff to mainstream solar power generation, which will be applied to solar power generation plants in the park.
Gujarat Power Corp. Gujarat En- ergy Transmission Corp. The Asian Development Bank has provided some support for the project. Renewable Energy Education Initiatives While we want to make Gujarat a solar hub, we also want our youth to conduct pioneer- ing research and provide effective energy so- lutions for future generations, Modi said in April at the Charanka Solar Park dedication ceremony.
Will we be able to manage so many so- lar power plants without having a skilled lo- cal workforce? Absolutely not! Modi said. Major training initiatives through industrial training institutes ITIs will take research and training in this field to another level. Six solar photovoltaic ITI labs have been established and students are already signing up to learn. Going for a record. Known as one the most business-friendly states in India, Gujarat has launched the Gujarat Solar Park project, which is destined to be worlds largest solar-pow- ered generation installation when it is completed in The park provides dedicated common infrastructure for PV-powered projects owned and operated by individual companies.
Inaugurated in May, the MW solar plant is integrated with the ad- jacent MW geothermal plant, which began operations in , and provides energy to run the geothermal plants auxiliary loads.
By Angela Neville, JD C ombining the best of two renewable energy technologies, the Stillwater hy- brid facility balances the continuous generation capacity of geothermal energy with the peak capacity of solar energy.
The new solar plants photovoltaic PV panels cover acres next to a geothermal plant in Churchill County, Nevada. NV Energy has a contract to buy all the power generated by the plant.
As the first of its kind in the world, this project demonstrates how we can tap renew- able energy sources to provide clean power for American families and businesses and deploy every available source of American energy, Steven Chu, secretary of the U.
Department of Energy, said in May. Sup- ported in part by the Recovery Act, the Fallon facility is expanding domestic renewable en- ergy sources and helping to build the infra- structure we need to stay competitive in the global race for clean energy technologies. How Geothermal Power Works Geothermal energy is the only nonhydro re- newable energy source able to provide basel- oad power because it relies on the continuous flow of heat from underground water sources rather than depending on the availability of wind or sun.
In many geothermal reservoirs, however, the water temperatures are moderate below F and not hot enough to produce steam with the force needed to efficiently turn a turbine. Nonetheless, such moderate temperature reservoirs can generate electric- ity using a binary system. He explained that the facility uses the system because of the moderate tem- perature of the nearby geothermal reservoir.
The plants binary system uses two fluids: hot water from underground wells heats isobutane and causes it to flash into vapor, which then turns the turbines to generate electricity. In addition, the facility uses proprietary technology that increases efficiency by mini- mizing the parasitic loadenergy losses that occur from operating the various pumps and fans required in the power generation cycle.
The plant has a closed-loop system that con- tinually replenishes the geothermal resource. Once the geothermal fluid has passed through the plant, it is pumped back into the ground. Therefore, there are zero intentional emis- sions from the process and virtually nothing is emitted to the atmosphere. Venturini added that his company has strong expertise in the geothermal energy sector. EGP NA is the first company in the world to produce electricity from geothermal sources dating back to in Larderello, Italy.
The company has over MW of geo- thermal capacity in full operation and uses in- novative operational and drilling techniques to optimize its projects output, he said. He also explained his companys goals related to de- veloping new synergies between geothermal and solar energy.
The geo- thermal plant also provides auxiliary power to the solar plant when there is no sunlight, thus eliminating the need for backfeeding power from the utility, according to Venturini. Currently, a number of utilities use renew- able energy sources like solar power during hours of peak consumer demand and combine it with a baseload coal or natural gas plant to ensure a steady power supply. In contrast, the Stillwater facility combines two renewable energy technologies to produce electricity at the same location and thereby increases the generation of zero-emission electricity.
Combining geothermal and solar energy at the Stillwater plant also makes it possible to use the same infrastructure, further reduc- ing environmental impacts.
It has to be said that since this geother- mal-solar project is a first of its kind, it met the regular challenges of everything new in terms of combining two advanced technolo- gies, as well as challenges of a regulatory and administrative nature, Venturini said. This innovative hybrid power plant dem- onstrates that the strengths of these different renewable technologies combine to create a better whole.
Together, they: Enhance the thermal efficiency in the geo- thermal unit when it is lowest, typically during the hottest and sunniest times of the day or year. Stabilize production during the day, en- abling a more load-following production profile. Reduce investment risk due to the uncertainty of the geothermal resource and compensate for geothermal reservoir temperature deple- tion without reducing production.
Las Vegas based Bombard Renewable Energy was the general contractor for the solar project. The benefit of adding solar to the Stillwater facilitys production capacity has been con- firmed in generation measurements to date. Average daily generation in the peak hours is significantly enhanced by the PV system, while the geothermal plant begins to reach optimal generation levels when solar genera- tion ramps down, Venturini explained.
From a source point of view, there were no development difficulties, as the geother- mal plant operational since was al- ready positioned in an area with good solar irradiation levels, so EGP NA just had to install the PV facility and connect it to the grid, Venturini said. It also helped that Enel Green Power was finishing construction of its pilot project in Italy integrating a solar ther- mal system to boost efficiency of a combined cycle natural gas power plant.
Venturini noted that the projects success derives from a number of factors: The hard work and commitment of the en- gineers and staff at EGP NA. The collaboration with and support of NV Energy, state and local government agen- cies, and the local communitiesall of which were essential in completing the project. Federal and state energy policies support- ing renewable energy that were critical in EGP NAs decision to commit to this suc- cessful investment.
Looking Ahead The Stillwater hybrid plant is already being recognized as a trendsetter in the renewable energy sector that will probably encourage future hybrid projects. The GEA singled out the Still- water facility for being the first hybrid power plant of its kind. The association pointed out that this technology may help to allow fu- ture projects that would otherwise have been unfeasible as stand-alone geothermal or solar projects to be more economically and tech- nologically viable.
Clean energy is a key sec- tor for Nevada. It provides energy from local sources, drives innovation, and most impor- tantly, brings high-quality jobs and economic growth to the local communities. Enel Green Powers first-of-a-kind solar geothermal hy- brid project is a living example of these ben- efits and I support the further growth of this industry in Nevada, Sandoval said. Some like it hot. The Stillwater facility integrates 26 MW of photovoltaic solar generat- ing capacity with 33 MW of baseload geothermal power.
In the geothermal plants binary sys- tem, hot water from underground wells heats isobutane and causes it to flash into vapor, which then turns the turbines to generate electricity.
After nine years of construction, installation, and testing, the Three Gorges Dam is now complete. On May 23, , the last main generator finished its final test, increasing the facilitys capacity to The dragon sign represents accelerated risk-taking and break- ing through outmoded paradigms.
Through hard work and tenacity, the pioneering TGD developers and their staff overcame many obstacles to create an immense hydroelectric facility. Since the TGD was started almost a decade ago, it has set several world records in hydropower construction and achieved a se- ries of technology breakthroughs, thanks to continuous scientific and technical advances. Located in the Xilingxia Gorge area, one of the three gorges of the Yangtze River, the dam controls a drainage area of 1 million square kilometers km 2 , with an average an- nual runoff of billion cubic meters m 3.
The TGD is made of The CTGC was set up as a state-authorized investment institution, which was allowed to use Chinese state funding for the project. On Dec. On Nov. Next, on June 16, , the TGDs double-lane five-step shiplock was put into service.
Then on July 10, , the first MW generator was connected to the grid and began to generate electricity. The last unit entered service in May Facility Highlights Now fully operational, the TGD has a total of 34 generators: 32 main generators, each with a capacity of MW, and two plant power generators, each with capacity of 50 MW, for a total capacity of Of those 32 main generators, 14 are installed in the north side of the dam, 12 in the south side, and the re- maining six in the underground power plant in a mountain south of the dam.
The first units were manufactured through two joint ventures JVs followed by units manufactured by Chinese companies based on extensive technology transfer require- ments. The technology transfer agreements were signed together with the equipment supply con- tracts. With a full line of complete Cleaver-Brooks boiler systems from burner to stack available in any size and any capacity, theres a Nebraska boiler that will fulfill your needs and exceed your expectations.
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CTGC later contracted with Alstom for the supply of four additional units. The TGD uses Francis turbines with a diameter that is 9. Most of the TGDs generators are water-cooled. Some newer ones are air-cooled, which are simpler in design and easier to maintain. Several technology breakthroughs were made during generator installations: auto- matic welding on the large stator assembly, lamination stacking of a large stator in the field, welding and measurement of rotor roundness, and controlling the roundness of rotor rim and plate.
The speed of the units installation was impressive. For example, in , the proj- ect team installed and put into operation six MW units, which set a new world record for yearly installation of large-size turbine generators. Monitoring data showed that all the units that had been put into operation worked steadily and met the design require- ment of various technical parameters. During the annual dry season that occurs from November to May, power output is lim- ited by the rivers flow rate.
On the flip side, when there is enough water flow, power out- put is limited by plant generating capacity. The TGD reached its design-maximum res- ervoir water level of m for the first time on Oct.
By Aug. Currently, the facilitys electricity is sent to Central China, East China, Guang- dong, and Chongqing with a maximum trans- mission range of 1, km. Nine provinces and two cities consume power generated by the TGD Figure 1. However, de- mand has increased more quickly than the Chinese government initially projected. For example, the TGD supported only about 1.
Environmental Effects Compared to coal-fired power stations pro- ducing the equivalent level of generation, the TGD will avoid creating the following pollut- ant amounts, according to CTGC sources: million tons of carbon dioxide Two million tons of sulfur dioxide 0.
In addition, hydropower saves the energy needed to mine, wash, and transport coal from northern China. Despite such accomplishments, some crit- ics assert that the huge hydroelectric facility is having the following negative impacts on the environment: Wastewater collection increased.
More than one billion tons of wastewater are released annually into the Yangtze River, which in the past was moved downstream before the river was dammed and the res- ervoir was created. Now the water in the reservoir appears stagnant and polluted. Decrease in forest cover. Loss of wildlife. The region provides habi- tats for hundreds of freshwater and terres- trial animal species. Some of the species that have been negatively impacted by the TGD include Chinese Baiji river dolphins, Siberian cranes, and Yangtze sturgeon.
Freshwater fish are especially affected by dams due to changes in the water temperature and flow regime. Many fish are injured in the turbine blades of hydroelectric plants as well. Increased erosion and sedimentation. Much of the sediment will now settle there instead of flowing downstream, and there will be less sediment downstream. The projects goal is to prevent year floods and control year floods of the Yangtze River. Eve Emshwiller. Problem: The increasing availability of large vegetation databases holds great potential in ecological research and biodiversity informatics, However, inconsistent application of plant names compromises the usefulness of these databases.
Unfortunately, awareness of the problem remains low among vegetation scientists. We discuss how these problems might be minimized. Results: We highlight the importance of taxonomic reference lists for standardizing plant names and outline standards they should fulfill to be useful for vegetation databases. Additionally, we present the R package vegdata, which is designed to solve name-related problems that arise when analysing vegetation databases.
Conclusions: We conclude that by giving more consideration to the appropriate application of plant names, vegetation scientists might enhance the reliability of analyses obtained from large vegetation databases. Rajanikanth Govindarajulu. Aaron RoDriguez. Benjamin J Crain , Jeffrey White. Napa County contains particularly high levels of biological diversity in a variety of categories and is considered one of ten localized areas in California that contain the highest numbers of native and endemic plant species.
Here we present a floristic summary based on a new annotated checklist of the flora of this uniquely diverse region. The checklist was developed by combining several local and statewide floristic data sources that represent herbarium collection records and other observations from Napa County.
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Regardless of the outcome, wind windows 10 1703 download iso itasca statenville remains a loser. The Production Tax Credit PTC syatenville wind power expires at the end of this year un- less Sttatenville takes affirmative action to renew the law.
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One Wiindows Club area representa- tive uses the metaphor Cuisinarts of the air to describe wind turbines. At last count 77 organizations were petitioning the U. Fish and Wildlife Service to toughen the rules http://replace.me/25479.txt siting, permitting, and operating large-scale wind projects.
Rules proposed by the Fish and Wildlife Service for wind turbine installations were deemed unwork- able by the American Wind Energy Asso- ciation AWEAwhich continues to dismiss bird kills as a serious problem.
Internal friction burst into flames re- cently when Exelon a member of the AWEA board went public with its view that the PTC was no longer necessary and should be allowed to expire. Exelon argued that the PTC was distorting competitive wholesale energy markets and was causing harm to other clean energy sources, such as nu- clear energy. Exelon was quickly voted off the island at an emergency board meet- ing that excluded Exelon. Opposing points of view are clearly not valued by AWEA.
The root cause of the market and eco- nomic distortions described by Exelon is the PTC. In some regions wind farm owners bid into the electricity market at winndows zero or negative power cost up to the value of the PTC in order to stay first in the production queue. The market distortion is particularly prevalent during periods of low power demand and excess electricity supply, where these artificially low power prices force baseload plants to iasca at less-efficient part load.
The economic distortion is exacerbated in states with a renewable portfolio stan- dard RPSwhere mandated power pur- chase agreements pay two to three times the marginal power cost. Not only does statenvillf PTC enable priority operation, but it also ensures that we all pay a premium for that power.
The cost is buried in the govern- ment-approved utility rate structures. The PTC has had the effect of shifting the cost of wind power development from a small num- ber of states to taxpayers nationwide.
When the PTC was originally enacted, this justification was blindly accepted by many states without independently confirming CO 2 reduction claims.
The result was RPSs designed to encourage wind by exercising a states political muscle over electricity markets. Intuition is not a substitute for empirical studies. Over the past few years a large number of studies have been conducted in the U. Some studies predict a little more, some a little less. I also find it interesting that many utilities with large amounts of wind generation steadfastly refuse to release operating data statenvikle analysis.
I suspect to do so would mean the release of empirical data to build the oppositions case for insignificant CO 2 reduction and poor operating economics. I was unable to find one study of existing wind energy installations that found the CO 2 reductions predicted by AWEA. The number of grassroots organiza- tions opposed to government-mandated and -supported utility-scale wind power projects is growing rapidly.
The Indus- trial Wind Action Group maintains a grow- ing list of organizations more than at last count on its website windaction. Follow the Money AWEA, as the industrys principal lobby- ist, has failed to state a compelling rea- winddows why the PTC should be renewed for a mature technology with minimal environ- mental benefits.
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